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Cushing’s disease (CD) is caused by an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary adenoma, or rarely carcinoma, and is considered a highly morbid endocrine disorder with few medical options.1,2 Although transsphenoidal pituitary surgery (TSS) is the mainstay of treatment for this disease, up to one-third of the patients eventually relapse and are required to be treated with a […]

Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is a non-Hodgkin B-cell lymphoma originating from the germinal center, characterized by dysregulation of the MYC gene, often resulting from the translocation of chromosome 8 into 14. It is extremely aggressive, representing the fastest proliferating cancer, and typically involves the lymph nodes, bone marrow and the central nervous system.1,2 Three identifiable subtypes include sporadic, endemic, […]

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease secondary to the destruction of the insulin-producing β cells of the islets of the pancreas. Environmental factors presumably trigger the disease in genetically susceptible individuals, leading to a lifetime dependency on exogenous insulin.1 The risk of T1DM in the general population is 0.4% but increases to 1–9% […]

Bladder cancer (BC) is the second most commonly diagnosed urological neoplasm worldwide.1 Approximately 10–15% of patients already have metastases in lymph nodes, lungs, liver and bones at diagnosis.2,3 Metastatic BC has a poor prognosis, with a 5-year overall survival (OS) rate of 10% and median OS of only 15 months.4–6 The vast majority (>90%) of BCs are urothelial […]

Craniopharyngiomas (CPs) are rare, benign, epithelial tumours of the sellar and parasellar regions arising as embryonic malformations along the pathway of the craniopharyngeal duct.1 They have an incidence of 0.13 per 100,000 per year to 0.5–2.0 per million per year and are classified as grade I tumours according to the 2017 WHO Classification of Tumors of […]

Immune checkpoints are small molecules that are present on the cell surface of T lymphocytes to regulate the immune response. While some of these molecules enhance the stimulatory signals, others boost the inhibitory signals to blunt the activity of T lymphocytes (intrinsic down-regulators of immunity).1 The stimulatory checkpoints include CD28 – a family of receptors […]

World Health Organization statistics rank tuberculosis (TB) amongst the top 10 communicable diseases in the world, and it remains one of the biggest killers of mankind.1 TB is known to cause both mortality and morbidity. Pulmonary TB is the primary manifestation, but genital TB is also found in a considerable number of men and women. There […]

The use of immunotherapy in the treatment of cancer has been revolutionary, opening a new era in the fight against cancer. The principle of immunotherapy involves using pharmacotherapy to harness the power of the body’s own immune system to destroy cancer cells.1 Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are a novel form of pharmacologic immunotherapy used in the […]