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Metformin Metformin has been recommended as the first-line glucose-lowering agent for the management of type 2 diabetes (T2D) for several decades due to its efficacy and safety profile.1–3 In fact, metformin has been widely used as an insulin-sensitizing agent for not only T2D but also pre-diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome. The common side effects of metformin are […]

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease secondary to the destruction of the insulin-producing β cells of the islets of the pancreas. Environmental factors presumably trigger the disease in genetically susceptible individuals, leading to a lifetime dependency on exogenous insulin.1 The risk of T1DM in the general population is 0.4% but increases to 1–9% […]

Alopecia is a dermatological disorder characterized by hair loss from the scalp or body.1–3 It is one of the most common dermatological disorders worldwide and has several aetiologies, such as hereditary background, hormonal imbalance, infection or idiopathic causes.1,3,4 Alopecia can be classified into two main categories: scarring (or cicatricial) alopecia and non-scarring (non-cicatricial) alopecia (Figure 1).1–3 Scarring […]

Parathyroid carcinoma is a rare endocrine neoplasm with an incidence of 0.5–2.0% of all cases of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT).1 It was first described in 1904 by de Quevain, when it was found in a patient presenting with a non-functioning parathyroid mass.2 Around 26 years later, Sainton and Millot described the first functioning parathyroid carcinoma.3 There is no […]

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a very common disease, with an incidence of 5−21% in women during their fertile life (18–45 years of age) worldwide.1 PCOS is clinically diagnosed when two of the three 2003 Rotterdam consensus criteria are met: (i) chronic anovulation disorder (in the form of oligo- or anovulation up to amenorrhoea); (ii) clinical (e.g. […]

Article highlights Epigenetics refers to the heritable changes in DNA expression without changes in the genetic code. Epigenetic changes are brought about by post-translational modifications of histone proteins, covalent modifications of DNA bases and microRNA. Epigenetics explains how environmental milieu such as diet, physical activity, circadian rhythm, intrauterine malnutrition or maternal obesity interact with the genome of […]

Hypothyroidism usually presents with subtle signs and symptoms. Rarely, longstanding juvenile hypothyroidism can manifest as a syndromic diagnosis of Van Wyk–Grumbach syndrome (VWGS).1 VWGS presents as early menarche, thelarche, galactorrhoea, delayed bone ageing and multi-cystic ovaries, along with long-standing primary hypothyroidism.2 Reversal to the prepubertal state is typically seen following the appropriate treatment with levothyroxine. The present […]